CLASSIFYING SOCIETIES - IELTS Reading Answers & Explanations
From IELTS Recent Actual Test 3 Academic Reading Test 3 · Part 1 · Questions 1–13
Reading Passage
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.
CLASSIFYING SOCIETIES
Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, sociologists and anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige or power, and usually refer to four basic types of societies. From least to most socially complex they are clans, tribes, chiefdoms and states.
Clan
These are small-scale societies of hunters and gatherers, generally of fewer than 100 people, who move seasonally to exploit wild (undomesticated) food resources. Most surviving hunter-gatherer groups are of this kind, such as the Hadza of Tanzania or the San of southern Africa. Clan members are generally kinsfolk, related by descent or marriage. Clans lack formal leaders, so there are no marked economic differences or disparities in status among their members.
Because clans are composed of mobile groups of hunter-gatherers, their sites consist mainly of seasonally occupied camps, and other smaller and more specialised sites. Among the latter are kill or butchery sites—locations where large mammals are killed and sometimes butchered—and work sites, where tools are made or other specific activities carried out. The base camp of such a group may give evidence of rather insubstantial dwellings or temporary shelters, along with the debris of residential occupation.
Tribe
These are generally larger than mobile hunter-gatherer groups, but rarely number more than a few thousand, and their diet or subsistence is based largely on cultivated plants and domesticated animals. Typically, they are settled farmers, but they may be nomadic with a very different, mobile economy based on the intensive exploitation of livestock. These are generally multi-community societies, with the individual communities integrated into the larger society through kinship ties. Although some tribes have officials and even a "capital" or seat of government, such officials lack the economic base necessary for effective use of power.
The typical settlement pattern for tribes is one of settled agricultural homesteads or villages. Characteristically, no one settlement dominates any of the others in the region. Instead, the archaeologist finds evidence for isolated, permanently occupied houses or for permanent villages. Such villages may be made up of a collection of free-standing houses, like those of the first farms of the Danube valley in Europe. Or they may be clusters of buildings grouped together, for example, the pueblos of the American Southwest, and the early farming village or small town of Çatalhöyük in modern Turkey.
Chiefdom
These operate on the principle of ranking—differences in social status between people. Different lineages (a lineage is a group claiming descent from a common ancestor) are graded on a scale of prestige, and the senior lineage, and hence the society as a whole, is governed by a chief. Prestige and rank are determined by how closely related one is to the chief, and there is no true stratification into classes. The role of the chief is crucial.
Often, there is local specialisation in craft products, and surpluses of these and of foodstuffs are periodically paid as obligation to the chief. He uses these to maintain his retainers, and may use them for redistribution to his subjects. The chiefdom generally has a center of power, often with temples, residences of the chief and his retainers, and craft specialists. Chiefdoms vary greatly in size, but the range is generally between about 5000 and 20,000 persons.
Early State
These preserve many of the features of chiefdoms, but the ruler (perhaps a king or sometimes a queen) has explicit authority to establish laws and also to enforce them by the use of a standing army. Society no longer depends totally upon kin relationships: it is now stratified into different classes. Agricultural workers and the poorer urban dwellers form the lowest classes, with the craft specialists above, and the priests and kinsfolk of the ruler higher still. The functions of the ruler are often separated from those of the priest: palace is distinguished from temple. The society is viewed as a territory owned by the ruling lineage and populated by tenants who have an obligation to pay taxes. The central capital houses a bureaucratic administration of officials; one of their principal purposes is to collect revenue (often in the form of taxes and tolls) and distribute it to government, army and craft specialists. Many early states developed complex redistribution systems to support these essential services.
This rather simple social typology, set out by Elman Service and elaborated by William Sanders and Joseph Marino, can be criticised, and it should not be used unthinkingly. Nevertheless, if we are seeking to talk about early societies, we must use words and hence concepts to do so. Service's categories provide a good framework to help organise our thoughts.
Questions
Questions 1–7 True / False / Not Given
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
Questions 8–13 Short Answers
Answer the questions below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Answers & Explanations Summary
| # | Answer | Evidence | Explanation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Q1 | TRUE | Clans lack formal leaders, so there are no marked economic differences or disparities in status among their members | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that clans do not have official leaders. As a result, there are no big differences in money or social importance between the people in the clan. Answer Explanation: The answer means it is correct that people in a clan have about the same amount of money and possessions. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is TRUE because the passage says that within clans there are 'no marked economic differences'. The question states there is 'little economic difference,' which means the same thing. The passage explains this is because clans do not have formal leaders. |
| Q2 | NOT GIVEN | These are generally larger than mobile hunter-gatherer groups, but rarely number more than a few thousand, and their diet or subsistence is based largely on cultivated plants and domesticated animals | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that the food for people in a tribe comes mostly from 'cultivated plants', which are plants they grow themselves. But, it does not say if they grow many different kinds of plants or just a few. Answer Explanation: The answer 'NOT GIVEN' means the text does not say whether the farmers in a tribe grow many different kinds of plants or only a few. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is NOT GIVEN because the passage says that a tribe's diet is 'based largely on cultivated plants'. However, it does not provide any information about the 'range' or variety of these plants. The text does not mention if they grow many different types of plants or just one or two. |
| Q3 | FALSE | Characteristically, no one settlement dominates any of the others in the region | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that, typically, one living place or village ('settlement') is not more powerful or important ('dominates') than the others in the area ('region'). This means all villages in a tribe are generally equal. Answer Explanation: The answer is FALSE. This means it is not true that one village in a tribe is more important than the other villages. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is FALSE. The passage says that in a tribe, 'no one settlement dominates any of the others'. The word 'dominates' means to be more important or powerful. So, the passage clearly states that all settlements in a tribe are equal, and not one is more important than another. This is the opposite of what the question says. |
| Q4 | FALSE | Prestige and rank are determined by how closely related one is to the chief, and there is no true stratification into classes | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that a person's importance ('prestige') and position ('rank') are decided by how near their family connection is to the chief. It does not say that status comes from owning land. Answer Explanation: The answer means the statement, 'A member's status in a chiefdom is determined by how much land he owns,' is not correct. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is FALSE. The passage clearly states that in a chiefdom, a person's importance and social position, called 'prestige and rank', are decided by their family relationship to the leader, or 'chief'. The closer a person is related to the chief, the higher their status. The text does not mention owning land as a way to determine status in a chiefdom. |
| Q5 | TRUE | The chiefdom generally has a center of power, often with temples, residences of the chief and his retainers, and craft specialists | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that a chiefdom has a main area. In this area, you can find temples, homes for the chief and his helpers, and also 'craft specialists'. 'Craft specialists' are people who are very good at making things by hand. Answer Explanation: The answer means that the statement is correct. In societies called chiefdoms, there were people who made special items or goods. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is TRUE because the passage says that chiefdoms have centers of power that include 'craft specialists'. 'Craft specialists' are people whose job is to make things with their hands, which are known as 'craft goods'. |
| Q6 | TRUE | These preserve many of the features of chiefdoms, but the ruler (perhaps a king or sometimes a queen) has explicit authority to establish laws and also to enforce them by the use of a standing army | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that in an 'Early State', the leader, who might be a king or queen, has the specific power ('explicit authority') to create laws. It also states this leader can use an army ('a standing army') to make sure people obey these laws ('enforce them'). Answer Explanation: The answer is TRUE. This means the statement that a king uses an army to maintain order in a state is correct. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is TRUE because the section on 'Early State' societies in the passage says that the 'ruler', who can be a 'king' or queen, has the power to make laws. The passage then says the ruler can 'enforce' these laws, which means making people follow them, 'by the use of a standing army'. Using an army to enforce laws is how a ruler 'keeps the order'. |
| Q7 | NOT GIVEN | The central capital houses a bureaucratic administration of officials; one of their principal purposes is to collect revenue (often in the form of taxes and tolls) and distribute it to government, army and craft specialists | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that the main city has government workers. Their main job is to collect money, like taxes, and share it with the government, the army, and skilled workers. This part of the text talks about their work, not how much they are paid. Answer Explanation: The answer means the text does not tell us if government workers (bureaucratic officers) get more money than other people. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is NOT GIVEN because the passage explains the job of bureaucratic officers—to collect and give out money. However, it does not say anything about their salaries or compare how much they earn with other members of the society. |
| Q8 | tools | Among the latter are kill or butchery sites—locations where large mammals are killed and sometimes butchered—and work sites, where tools are made or other specific activities carried out | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that clans had special places for different activities. One of these places was a 'work site'. A work site is a place where people made tools or did other special jobs. Answer Explanation: The answer means that people in a clan made tools at special places called work sites. Tools are things like hammers or knives that help people do a job. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is "tools" because the section on "Clan" societies describes different types of sites they used. It specifically mentions "work sites" and states that these were locations "where tools are made". |
| Q9 | nomadic | Typically, they are settled farmers, but they may be nomadic with a very different, mobile economy based on the intensive exploitation of livestock | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that tribes usually stay in one place and grow food ('settled farmers'). However, it also says that sometimes they can be 'nomadic', meaning they move around with their animals to live. Answer Explanation: The answer means a way of life where people move from place to place instead of living in one spot. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is 'nomadic' because the passage first states that tribes are usually 'settled farmers'. Then, it presents an alternative way of life using the word 'but', saying they 'may be nomadic'. The question asks for the 'other way of life', and 'nomadic' is presented as the alternative to settled farming. |
| Q10 | grouped / grouped together | Or they may be clusters of buildings grouped together, for example, the pueblos of the American Southwest, and the early farming village or small town of Çatalhöyük in modern Turkey | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that some villages had buildings that were in 'clusters' or 'grouped together'. It then gives Çatalhöyük as an example of this kind of place. Answer Explanation: The answer means that the houses in Çatalhöyük are built very close to each other, not far apart. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is found in the section describing 'Tribe' societies. The text explains two ways village houses could be built: separated or clustered. It then gives Çatalhöyük as a specific example of a settlement where buildings were 'grouped together'. |
| Q11 | foodstuffs | Often, there is local specialisation in craft products, and surpluses of these and of foodstuffs are periodically paid as obligation to the chief. He uses these to maintain his retainers, and may use them for redistribution to his subjects | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that people give extra amounts ('surpluses') of handmade items ('craft products') and food ('foodstuffs') to their leader, the chief. The chief can then give these things back to his people ('redistribution to his subjects'). Answer Explanation: The answer means types of food. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is 'foodstuffs'. The passage states that people in a chiefdom give the chief extra craft products and foodstuffs. The chief then uses these items for 'redistribution to his subjects,' which means he gives them back to the people. The question asks what he gives besides craft products, and the other item mentioned is foodstuffs. |
| Q12 | 20000 / 20,000 | Chiefdoms vary greatly in size, but the range is generally between about 5000 and 20,000 persons | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that the size of chiefdoms can be very different, but there are usually between 5,000 and 20,000 people in them. Answer Explanation: The answer means that the biggest number of people that can live in a chiefdom is 20,000. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is 20,000 because the part of the passage about 'Chiefdom' society gives a number range for its size. It says chiefdoms have between 5,000 and 20,000 people. The question asks for the 'largest possible population', so the highest number in that range is the correct answer. |
| Q13 | craft specialists | Agricultural workers and the poorer urban dwellers form the lowest classes, with the craft specialists above, and the priests and kinsfolk of the ruler higher still | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that society was divided into different levels. At the very bottom were the farmers ("Agricultural workers"). In the level just higher than the farmers were the skilled workers ("craft specialists"). The highest levels were for priests and the ruler's family. Answer Explanation: The answer is people who have a special skill in making things by hand, like pots, tools, or clothes. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is "craft specialists" because the passage explains the different social groups, or classes, in an early state. It says that farmers, called "agricultural workers," are in the lowest class. The passage then says that "craft specialists" are in the class directly "above" the farmers. |