Young Children’s Sense Of Identity - IELTS Reading Answers & Explanations
From Cambridge IELTS 09 Academic Reading Test 4 · Part 2 · Questions 14–26
Reading Passage
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26 which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.
Young children's sense of identity
A A sense of self develops in young children by degrees. The process can usefully be thought of in terms of the gradual emergence of two somewhat separate features: the self as a subject, and the self as an object. William James introduced the distinction in 1892, and contemporaries of his, such as Charles Cooley, added to the developing debate. Ever since then psychologists have continued building on the theory.
B According to James, a child's first step on the road to self-understanding can be seen as the recognition that he or she exists. This is an aspect of the self that he labelled 'self-as-subject', and he gave it various elements. These included an awareness of one's own agency (i.e. one's power to act), and an awareness of one's distinctiveness from other people. These features gradually emerge as infants explore their world and interact with caregivers. Cooley (1902) suggested that a sense of the self-as-subject was primarily concerned with being able to exercise power. He proposed that the earliest examples of this are an infant's attempts to control physical objects, such as toys or his or her own limbs. This is followed by attempts to affect the behaviour of other people. For example, infants learn that when they cry or smile someone responds to them.
C Another powerful source of information for infants about the effects they can have on the world around them is provided when others mimic them. Many parents spend a lot of time, particularly in the early months, copying their infant's vocalizations and expressions. In addition, young children enjoy looking in mirrors, where the movements they can see are dependent upon their own movements. This is not to say that infants recognize the reflection as their own image (a later development). However, Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) suggest that infants' developing understanding that the movements they see in the mirror are contingent on their own, leads to a growing awareness that they are distinct from other people. This is because they, and only they, can change the reflection in the mirror.
D This understanding that children gain of themselves as active agents continues to develop in their attempts to co-operate with others in play. Dunn (1988) points out that it is in such day-to-day relationships and interactions that the child's understanding of his- or herself emerges. Empirical investigations of the self-as-subject in young children are, however, rather scarce because of difficulties of communication: even if young infants can reflect on their experience, they certainly cannot express this aspect of the self directly.
E Once children have acquired a certain level of self-awareness, they begin to place themselves in a whole series of categories, which together play such an important part in defining them uniquely as 'themselves'. This second step in the development of a full sense of self is what James called the 'self-as-object'. This has been seen by many to be the aspect of the self which is most influenced by social elements, since it is made up of social roles (such as student, brother, colleague) and characteristics which derive their meaning from comparison or interaction with other people (such as trustworthiness, shyness, sporting ability).
F Cooley and other researchers suggested a close connection between a person's own understanding of their identity and other people's understanding of it. Cooley believed that people build up their sense of identity from the reactions of others to them, and from the view they believe others have of them. He called the self-as-object the 'looking-glass self', since people come to see themselves as they are reflected in others. Mead (1934) went even further, and saw the self and the social world as inextricably bound together: 'The self is essentially a social structure, and it arises in social experience ... it is impossible to conceive of a self arising outside of social experience.'
G Lewis and Brooks-Gunn argued that an important developmental milestone is reached when children become able to recognize themselves visually without the support of seeing contingent movement. This recognition occurs around their second birthday. In one experiment, Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) dabbed some red powder on the noses of children who were playing in front of a mirror, and then observed how often they touched their noses. The psychologists reasoned that if the children knew what they usually looked like, they would be surprised by the unusual red mark and would start touching it. On the other hand, they found that children of 15 to 18 months are generally not able to recognize themselves unless other cues such as movement are present.
H Finally, perhaps the most graphic expressions of self-awareness in general can be seen in the displays of rage which are most common from 18 months to 3 years of age. In a longitudinal study of groups of three or four children, Bronson (1975) found that the intensity of the frustration and anger in their disagreements increased sharply between the ages of 1 and 2 years. Often, the children's disagreements involved a struggle over a toy that none of them had played with before or after the tug-of-war: the children seemed to be disputing ownership rather than wanting to play with it. Although it may be less marked in other societies, the link between the sense of 'self' and of 'ownership' is a notable feature of childhood in Western societies.
Questions
Questions 14–19 Matching Information
Reading Passage 2 has eight paragraphs, A-H.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
NB You may use any letter more than once.
Questions 20–23 Matching Features
Look at the following findings (Questions 20-23) and the list of researchers below.
Match each finding with the correct researcher or researchers, A-E.
A. James
B. Cooley
C. Lewis and Brooks-Gunn
D. Mead
E. Bronson
Questions 24–26 Summary Completion
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
How children acquire a sense of identity
First, children come to realise that they can have an effect on the world around them, for example by handling objects, or causing the image to move when they face a 24 . This aspect of self-awareness is difficult to research directly, because of 25 problems.
Secondly, children start to become aware of how they are viewed by others. One important stage in this process is the visual recognition of themselves which usually occurs when they reach the age of two. In Western societies at least, the development of self awareness is often linked to a sense of 26 , and can lead to disputes.
Answers & Explanations Summary
| # | Answer | Evidence | Explanation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Q14 | G | In one experiment, Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) dabbed some red powder on the noses of children who were playing in front of a mirror, and then observed how often they touched their noses | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage describes the specific actions the researchers took—putting powder on kids' noses and watching what they did—to answer their research question. Answer Explanation: The answer is paragraph G because it describes the steps taken in a scientific experiment. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is G because this paragraph provides a detailed description of an experiment's procedure, which is the 'method' used by researchers. It explains that researchers Lewis and Brooks-Gunn put red powder on children's noses while they were near a mirror to see if the children would notice and touch the mark. This specific set of actions explains how the study was done. |
| Q15 | C | Another powerful source of information for infants about the effects they can have on the world around them is provided when others mimic them. Many parents spend a lot of time, particularly in the early months, copying their infant's vocalizations and expressions | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that babies get important information about themselves when other people copy the noises they make and the faces they pull. Answer Explanation: The answer C means that the third section of the text explains how copying what a baby does helps them learn about who they are. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is C because this paragraph discusses how imitation (the act of copying someone) helps a child develop an identity. It uses the word 'mimic,' which is a synonym for imitate. The text explains that when parents copy a baby’s sounds and facial expressions, the baby learns that they can have an effect on the world, which is a key part of understanding who they are. |
| Q16 | G | Lewis and Brooks-Gunn argued that an important developmental milestone is reached when children become able to recognize themselves visually without the support of seeing contingent movement. This recognition occurs around their second birthday | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that children reach a big step in growing up when they can see themselves and know it is them, even when they are not moving. This happens when they are about two years old. Answer Explanation: The answer is paragraph G. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is G because this paragraph identifies the specific age when a child can recognize themselves without the help of movement. The phrase 'visually without the support of seeing contingent movement' is used to describe recognizing a static image (an image that stays still). The text states that this 'milestone' or goal is usually reached around a child's 'second birthday.' |
| Q17 | D | Empirical investigations of the self-as-subject in young children are, however, rather scarce because of difficulties of communication: even if young infants can reflect on their experience, they certainly cannot express this aspect of the self directly | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage states that scientific studies (empirical investigations) about how young children understand themselves are quite rare or limited. This is because small children cannot communicate well enough to talk about or explain their inner feelings and identity to researchers. Answer Explanation: The answer is Paragraph D because it explains why there is not much scientific study done on how young children see themselves as individuals who can take action (the 'self-as-subject'). Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is Paragraph D because it highlights the limitations of scientific research, describing studies as 'scarce' (meaning there are not many). It explains the reason for this limitation is that young children have 'difficulties of communication.' This means they cannot easily talk or use words to explain their thoughts, making it hard for scientists to study this part of their development. The terms 'empirical investigations' and 'scarce' in the text refer to the limitations of scientific research mentioned in the question. |
| Q18 | H | Although it may be less marked in other societies, the link between the sense of 'self' and of 'ownership' is a notable feature of childhood in Western societies | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that connecting who you are (your 'self') with what you own is a common part of growing up in Western cultures, but this connection might not be the same in other parts of the world. Answer Explanation: The answer is paragraph H. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is H because it connects a specific culture ('Western societies') with a specific type of behaviour (children fighting over ownership or showing rage). The passage suggests that while this behavior is common in Western cultures, it might be different or less common in 'other societies,' showing a clear link between a child's cultural environment and their actions. Keywords like 'societies' and 'Western' represent the cultural aspect, while 'ownership' and 'disagreements' represent the behavior. |
| Q19 | E | This second step in the development of a full sense of self is what James called the 'self-as-object'. This has been seen by many to be the aspect of the self which is most influenced by social elements, since it is made up of social roles (such as student, brother, colleague) and characteristics which derive their meaning from comparison or interaction with other people (such as trustworthiness, shyness, sporting ability) | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that the 'self-as-object' is made of many parts, including roles in society (like being a brother) and personal qualities (like being shy) that we understand by comparing ourselves to other people. Answer Explanation: The answer is E because this paragraph lists several specific items that make up the 'self-as-object' part of a person's identity. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is E because it defines the 'self-as-object' and provides a variety of examples. It mentions social roles, such as being a student or a brother, and personal traits, such as shyness or sporting ability. These roles and characteristics are the 'features' mentioned in the question that contribute to a child's understanding of who they are in relation to others. |
| Q20 | D | Mead (1934) went even further, and saw the self and the social world as inextricably bound together: 'The self is essentially a social structure, and it arises in social experience it is impossible to conceive of a self arising outside of social experience.' |
Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says Mead believed the 'self' (the sense of who you are) is built from social experiences. He thought it is impossible for a person to have a 'self' without being part of society and interacting with other people. Answer Explanation: The answer is D, which refers to the researcher Mead. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is D because the researcher Mead argued that a person's 'self' (identity) is created through social experiences. He believed it is impossible for a person to develop an identity if they are not part of a social world or interacting with others. This matches the idea that identity cannot form without relationships with other people. |
| Q21 | B | Cooley (1902) suggested that a sense of the self-as-subject was primarily concerned with being able to exercise power. He proposed that the earliest examples of this are an infant's attempts to control physical objects, such as toys or his or her own limbs. This is followed by attempts to affect the behaviour of other people | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage states that Cooley thought children develop a sense of identity by learning how to use their power to control toys and change how other people act. Answer Explanation: The answer is B because it identifies the researcher Charles Cooley, who proposed that a child starts to understand themselves through their ability to control objects and influence the people around them. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is B because the passage states that Cooley believed the "self-as-subject" is mainly about "being able to exercise power." This concept of power or mastery is explained as a child's attempts to "control physical objects" (mastery over things) and their attempts to "affect the behaviour of other people" (mastery over people), like making someone respond by crying or smiling. These points directly match the idea that self-awareness is linked to mastery over things and people. |
| Q22 | E | Finally, perhaps the most graphic expressions of self-awareness in general can be seen in the displays of rage which are most common from 18 months to 3 years of age. In a longitudinal study of groups of three or four children, Bronson (1975) found that the intensity of the frustration and anger in their disagreements increased sharply between the ages of 1 and 2 years | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that knowing who you are (self-awareness) can be seen when toddlers get very angry. It states that a researcher named Bronson found that children between 1 and 2 years old start having much stronger feelings of anger and frustration when they disagree with others. Answer Explanation: The answer is Researcher E, which refers to Bronson. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is E because the author links a child's "self-awareness" (their sense of identity) to "displays of rage" or aggressive behavior. The passage explains that Bronson studied groups of children and noticed that their "frustration and anger" during arguments became much stronger at a specific time, specifically between the ages of 1 and 2 years old. |
| Q23 | C | However, Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) suggest that infants' developing understanding that the movements they see in the mirror are contingent on their own, leads to a growing awareness that they are distinct from other people | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that these researchers believe babies start to realize they are different people from everyone else when they notice that the person they see in the mirror moves only when they move. Answer Explanation: The answer means that the researchers Lewis and Brooks-Gunn discovered that looking at their own image in a mirror helps children understand that they are individuals. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is C (Lewis and Brooks-Gunn) because the passage describes their specific theory and experiment involving mirrors. Section C mentions their idea that babies become more self-aware by seeing how their movements match the 'reflection' in a mirror. Later, Section G describes an experiment they did using a mirror and red powder to see if children could recognize themselves, which is a major step in developing a sense of self or 'self awareness'. |
| Q24 | mirror | In addition, young children enjoy looking in mirrors, where the movements they can see are dependent upon their own movements | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that little children like looking at themselves in a shiny glass. When the children move their bodies, the image they see in the glass moves in the same way. Answer Explanation: The answer 'mirror' refers to a reflective glass surface. In the context of the passage, it is used by children to see their own body's movements. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is correct because the passage describes ways that infants learn about their impact on the world. Specifically, in Paragraph C, it mentions that children enjoy looking in mirrors because the 'movements they can see are dependent upon their own movements'. This helps them understand that they are 'distinct from other people' because they are the only ones who can change what they see in the reflection. Therefore, a mirror is the object that allows them to cause an image to move. |
| Q25 | communication | Empirical investigations of the self-as-subject in young children are, however, rather scarce because of difficulties of communication: even if young infants can reflect on their experience, they certainly cannot express this aspect of the self directly | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that scientific studies on how young children understand themselves are rare because babies cannot easily share their internal thoughts with others. Answer Explanation: The answer 'communication' means the way people share their thoughts, feelings, or information with others, such as by talking or writing. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is 'communication' because the passage explains that it is very difficult for scientists to study how babies think about themselves (the 'self-as-subject'). This is because very young children can't talk yet, so they cannot tell researchers what they are thinking or feeling. The text uses the phrase 'difficulties of communication' to explain why these research studies are 'scarce' (hard to find or rare). |
| Q26 | ownership | Although it may be less marked in other societies, the link between the sense of 'self' and of 'ownership' is a notable feature of childhood in Western societies | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that in Western cultures, there is a strong connection between a child's understanding of who they are and their feeling that items belong to them. Answer Explanation: The answer "ownership" means the feeling or legal right of having something that belongs to you. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is found in Paragraph H of the passage. It explains that in Western countries, there is a clear connection between a child's developing sense of 'self' and their feeling of 'ownership'. This means they become very interested in things belonging specifically to them, which often causes fights or 'disputes' with other children over toys. |