Obtaining Linguistic Data - IELTS Reading Answers & Explanations
From Cambridge IELTS 04 Academic Reading Test 3 · Part 3 · Questions 27–40
Reading Passage
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.
Obtaining Linguistic Data
A Many procedures are available for obtaining data about a language. They range from a carefully planned, intensive field investigation in a foreign country to a casual introspection about one's mother tongue carried out in an armchair at home.
B In all cases, someone has to act as a source of language data - an informant. Informants are (ideally) native speakers of a language, who provide utterances for analysis and other kinds of information about the language (e.g. translations, comments about correctness, or judgements on usage). Often, when studying their mother tongue, linguists act as their own informants, judging the ambiguity, acceptability, or other properties of utterances against their own intuitions. The convenience of this approach makes it widely used, and it is considered the norm in the generative approach to linguistics. But a linguist's personal judgements are often uncertain, or disagree with the judgements of other linguists, at which point recourse is needed to more objective methods of enquiry, using non-linguists as informants. The latter procedure is unavoidable when working on foreign languages, or child speech.
C Many factors must be considered when selecting informants - whether one is working with single speakers (a common situation when languages have not been described before), two people interacting, small groups or large-scale samples. Age, sex, social background and other aspects of identity are important, as these factors are known to influence the kind of language used. The topic of conversation and the characteristics of the social setting (e.g. the level of formality) are also highly relevant, as are the personal qualities of the informants (e.g. their fluency and consistency). For larger studies, scrupulous attention has been paid to the sampling theory employed, and in all cases, decisions have to be made about the best investigative techniques to use.
D Today, researchers often tape-record informants. This enables the linguist's claims about the language to be checked, and provides a way of making those claims more accurate ('difficult' pieces of speech can be listened to repeatedly). But obtaining naturalistic, good-quality data is never easy. People talk abnormally when they know they are being recorded, and sound quality can be poor. A variety of tape-recording procedures have thus been devised to minimise the 'observer's paradox' (how to observe the way people behave when they are not being observed). Some recordings are made without the speakers being aware of the fact - a procedure that obtains very natural data, though ethical objections must be anticipated. Alternatively, attempts can be made to make the speaker forget about the recording, such as keeping the tape recorder out of sight, or using radio microphones. A useful technique is to introduce a topic that quickly involves the speaker, and stimulates a natural language style (e.g. asking older informants about how times have changed in their locality).
E An audio tape recording does not solve all the linguist's problems, however. Speech is often unclear and ambiguous. Where possible, therefore, the recording has to be supplemented by the observer's written comments on the non-verbal behaviour of the participants, and about the context in general. A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of what is said. Video recordings avoid these problems to a large extent, but even they have limitations (the camera cannot be everywhere), and transcriptions always benefit from any additional commentary provided by an observer.
F Linguists also make great use of structured sessions, in which they systematically ask their informants for utterances that describe certain actions, objects or behaviour. With a bilingual informant, or through use of an interpreter, it is possible to use translation techniques ('How do you say table in your language?'). A large number of points can be covered in a short time, using interview work-sheets and questionnaires. Often, the researcher wishes to obtain information about just a single variable, in which case a restricted set of questions may be used: a particular feature of pronunciation, for example, can be elicited by asking the informant to say a restricted set of words. There are also several direct methods of elicitation, such as asking informants to fill in the blanks in a substitution frame (e.g. I ____ see a car), or feeding them the wrong stimulus for correction ('Is it possible to say I no can see?').
G A representative sample of language, compiled for the purpose of linguistic analysis, is known as a corpus. A corpus enables the linguist to make unbiased statements about frequency of usage, and it provides accessible data for the use of different researchers. Its range and size are variable. Some corpora attempt to cover the language as a whole, taking extracts from many kinds of text; others are extremely selective, providing a collection of material that deals only with a particular linguistic feature. The size of the corpus depends on practical factors, such as the time available to collect, process and store the data: it can take up to several hours to provide an accurate transcription of a few minutes of speech. Sometimes a small sample of data will be enough to decide a linguistic hypothesis; by contrast, corpora in major research projects can total millions of words. An important principle is that all corpora, whatever their size, are inevitably limited in their coverage, and always need to be supplemented by data derived from the intuitions of native speakers of the language, through either introspection or experimentation.
Questions
Questions 27–31 Matching Information
Reading Passage 3 has seven paragraphs labelled A-G.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
NB You may use any letter more than once.
Questions 32–36 Table Completion
Complete the table below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
| METHODS OF OBTAINING LINGUISTIC DATA | ADVANTAGES | DISADVANTAGES |
|---|---|---|
| 32 as informant | convenient | method of enquiry not objective enough |
| non-linguist as informant | necessary with 33 and child speech | the number of factors to be considered |
| recording an informant | allows linguists' claims to be checked | 34 of sound |
| videoing an informant | allows speakers' 35 to be observed | 36 might miss certain things |
Questions 37–40 Summary Completion
Complete the summary of paragraph G below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
A linguist can use a corpus to comment objectively on 37. Some corpora include a wide range of language while others are used to focus on a 38. The length of time the process takes will affect the 39 of the corpus. No corpus can ever cover the whole language and so linguists often find themselves relying on the additional information that can be gained from the 40 of those who speak the language concerned.
Answers & Explanations Summary
| # | Answer | Evidence | Explanation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Q27 | D | People talk abnormally when they know they are being recorded, and sound quality can be poor. A variety of tape-recording procedures have thus been devised to minimise the 'observer's paradox' (how to observe the way people behave when they are not being observed) | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage states that when people are aware that a recording is happening, they do not speak naturally or normally. This change in behavior is a problem for researchers who want to hear how people really talk. Answer Explanation: The answer is paragraph D. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is D because this paragraph specifically talks about how the process of recording makes people speak in a way that is not natural. It uses the term 'talk abnormally' to describe the effect that recording equipment has on human speech and mentions the 'observer's paradox', which is the problem of people changing their behavior when they know they are being watched or recorded. |
| Q28 | E | Where possible, therefore, the recording has to be supplemented by the observer's written comments on the non-verbal behaviour of the participants, and about the context in general. A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of what is said | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage states that researchers should add written notes about the speaker's movements and actions (non-verbal behavior) to the recordings. It explains that a look on someone's face can change what their words mean. Answer Explanation: The answer is paragraph E, which explains that it is helpful to write down notes about how people act and look while they are talking. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is E because this paragraph highlights that speech can be unclear, so researchers should add written notes about "non-verbal behaviour" (which is another way of saying body language). It points out that a "facial expression"—a type of body language—can completely change the meaning of what someone says, explaining why it is important for the observer to take these notes. |
| Q29 | C | Age, sex, social background and other aspects of identity are important, as these factors are known to influence the kind of language used. The topic of conversation and the characteristics of the social setting (e.g. the level of formality) are also highly relevant, as are the personal qualities of the informants (e.g. their fluency and consistency) | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that who a person is and where they are (the social setting) are very important because these things are known to change the way language is used. Answer Explanation: The answer means that paragraph C is the section where the text explains how the social environment and a person's background affect the way they speak. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is C because this paragraph discusses how different factors change the type of language people use. It specifically mentions that 'social background' and the 'social setting' (the environment or situation, such as how formal it is) are highly relevant factors that influence speech. |
| Q30 | D | Alternatively, attempts can be made to make the speaker forget about the recording, such as keeping the tape recorder out of sight, or using radio microphones. A useful technique is to introduce a topic that quickly involves the speaker, and stimulates a natural language style (e.g. asking older informants about how times have changed in their locality) | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that researchers can help people talk in a normal way by hiding the recording tools or by discussing a topic that is very interesting to the person. Answer Explanation: The answer is paragraph D, which explains the ways researchers try to help people act naturally instead of feeling nervous while they are being recorded. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is D because this paragraph addresses the problem of people changing their behavior when they know they are being watched. To help informants be less 'self-conscious' (worried or nervous about the situation), researchers use techniques to make them 'forget about the recording.' These include hiding microphones or talking about interesting topics that make the speaker focus on the conversation rather than the equipment. |
| Q31 | F | Linguists also make great use of structured sessions, in which they systematically ask their informants for utterances that describe certain actions, objects or behaviour. With a bilingual informant, or through use of an interpreter, it is possible to use translation techniques ('How do you say table in your language?'). A large number of points can be covered in a short time, using interview work-sheets and questionnaires. Often, the researcher wishes to obtain information about just a single variable, in which case a restricted set of questions may be used: a particular feature of pronunciation, for example, can be elicited by asking the informant to say a restricted set of words. There are also several direct methods of elicitation, such as asking informants to fill in the blanks in a substitution frame (e.g. I ____ see a car), or feeding them the wrong stimulus for correction ('Is it possible to say I no can see?') | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that researchers use organized meetings, translations, and paper lists (questionnaires) to learn about a language. It notes that if they want to know about one specific thing, they can use special methods like asking a person to fill in a blank space or correct a sentence that is wrong. Answer Explanation: The answer is Paragraph F because it describes several ways (methods) that experts use to get (generate) particular (specific) information about a language. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is F because it lists multiple techniques researchers use to collect linguistic information. These includes using 'structured sessions', 'translation techniques', 'questionnaires', and 'direct methods of elicitation'. These methods allow researchers to focus on a 'single variable' or specific feature, which matches the idea of generating 'specific data'. |
| Q32 | the linguist acts / linguist acts / the linguist / linguist / the linguists act / linguists act / the linguists / linguists | Often, when studying their mother tongue, linguists act as their own informants, judging the ambiguity, acceptability, or other properties of utterances against their own intuitions. The convenience of this approach makes it widely used, and it is considered the norm in the generative approach to linguistics. But a linguist's personal judgements are often uncertain, or disagree with the judgements of other linguists, at which point recourse is needed to more objective methods of enquiry, using non-linguists as informants | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that experts often use their own knowledge of their first language to collect data because it is simple and easy. However, it also points out that because their personal views can be uncertain or different from other people's views, they may need to use more neutral and factual methods that involve other people. Answer Explanation: The answer means that the person who studies language professionally (the linguist) is the person providing the information or data. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is found by looking at Paragraph B. The text states that language experts often use themselves to provide language data. The passage describes this method as having 'convenience' (which is the noun form of 'convenient'). It also explains that this method can be less 'objective' because the researcher's personal opinions or 'intuitions' might not be shared by others, meaning it is not always a perfect or scientific way to get information. |
| Q33 | foreign languages | The latter procedure is unavoidable when working on foreign languages, or child speech | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage says that using people who are not linguists is required when studying languages from other countries or how children talk. Answer Explanation: The answer "foreign languages" refers to languages that are not the researcher's own native language. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is found in Paragraph B. The passage explains that while linguists often use their own knowledge for their native tongue, they must use other people (non-linguists) when they cannot rely on their own intuition. The text uses the word "unavoidable" as a synonym for "necessary" to describe the need for non-linguists when researching foreign languages or the way children speak. |
| Q34 | quality / the quality / poor quality / the poor quality | People talk abnormally when they know they are being recorded, and sound quality can be poor | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that when researchers record people, there are two main problems: the people might not speak naturally, and the actual sound of the recording can be bad. Answer Explanation: The answer refers to how clear or good the sound is in a recording. Specifically, it points out that the sound may not be very good. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is found in Paragraph D, where the text discusses the challenges of tape-recording informants. It states that "sound quality can be poor," which is a clear disadvantage. In the table, the phrase "poor quality" (or just "quality") fits perfectly into the blank "[input] of sound" to show that the audio might be difficult to hear or understand. |
| Q35 | non-verbal behaviour / non-verbal behavior / facial expression / facial expressions | Where possible, therefore, the recording has to be supplemented by the observer's written comments on the non-verbal behaviour of the participants, and about the context in general. A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of what is said. Video recordings avoid these problems to a large extent | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that when only recording sound, a researcher must write extra notes about how a person moves or looks. Video is useful because it records these visual actions directly, making the meanings of what is said much clearer. Answer Explanation: The answer refers to things like body language and face movements that show how a person feels or what they mean without using words. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is found in Paragraph E. It explains that audio recordings on their own are not enough because they do not show visual cues like 'non-verbal behaviour' or a 'facial expression'. Since the passage states that 'Video recordings avoid these problems', it means they allow researchers to see these important visual details clearly without needing to write manually about them. |
| Q36 | camera / the camera / recording / recordings / video recordings | Video recordings avoid these problems to a large extent, but even they have limitations (the camera cannot be everywhere), and transcriptions always benefit from any additional commentary provided by an observer | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage states that while video is useful, it has problems because the recording machine cannot see everything. Because the camera cannot be everywhere, it might fail to capture all the information. Answer Explanation: The answer is the equipment used to film the informant, which is the camera or video camera. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is camera because the text explains that recording video has limits. It mentions that the recording device used to capture video cannot see every angle or be in all places at the same time. This explains why the recording might miss certain things or actions during the session. |
| Q37 | frequency of usage / usage frequency | A corpus enables the linguist to make unbiased statements about frequency of usage, and it provides accessible data for the use of different researchers | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that a corpus helps a language expert talk about how many times words are used without being affected by personal opinions. Answer Explanation: The answer refers to how often certain words or phrases occur in a language. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is found in Paragraph G. It discusses the purpose of a corpus, which is a big collection of language examples. The text notes that using a corpus allows a linguist to make "unbiased statements" about how often parts of the language are used. In the summary, "comment objectively" is a synonym for making "unbiased statements." Therefore, the specific thing they are commenting on is the "frequency of usage." |
| Q38 | particular linguistic feature | Some corpora attempt to cover the language as a whole, taking extracts from many kinds of text; others are extremely selective, providing a collection of material that deals only with a particular linguistic feature | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that some collections of language information try to include many different types of text to show the whole language, while other collections are very specific and only contain information about one specific language detail. Answer Explanation: The answer means a specific part or characteristic of a language, such as a cierto grammatical rule or a specific way of pronouncing words. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is found in paragraph G, which discusses how different corpora (collections of language data) vary in their scope. The passage explains that while some corpora try to represent a language entirely, others are 'extremely selective' and focus on just one specific part of the language. In the summary, the phrase 'focus on' acts as a synonym for 'deals only with' found in the text. |
| Q39 | size | The size of the corpus depends on practical factors, such as the time available to collect, process and store the data: it can take up to several hours to provide an accurate transcription of a few minutes of speech | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that how big a group of language data (corpus) is depends on how much time a person has to find and write down all the information. Answer Explanation: The answer means how big or how large a collection of language information is. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is correct because the passage explains that the 'size' of a corpus relies on 'practical factors' like the 'time available' to gather and organize the data. In the summary, 'the length of time the process takes' is another way to describe the 'time available to collect, process and store the data'. This confirms that time is what determines how large (the size) the collection becomes. |
| Q40 | intuitions | An important principle is that all corpora, whatever their size, are inevitably limited in their coverage, and always need to be supplemented by data derived from the intuitions of native speakers of the language, through either introspection or experimentation | Excerpt/Passage Explanation: The passage explains that every collection of language samples is missing some parts of the language. Because of this, linguists must add more information by using the natural thoughts and feelings (intuitions) of people who speak that language natively. Answer Explanation: The answer "intuitions" refers to the natural feelings, internal knowledge, or gut instincts that people have about their own language without having to think hard about it. Reason For Correctness: The correct answer is found in Paragraph G, which explains that even the largest collections of language data (corpora) are limited. Because these collections cannot show everything about a language, researchers must look for more information. The text states that they get this extra data from the "intuitions" of native speakers—the people who have spoken the language since they were children. |